Santoshan
From The House of Wisdom
Published by O Books |
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Patanjali’s Yoga Sutra consists of a hundred and ninety-five short aphorisms, divided into four parts. Much remains unsaid, which is probably because some topics and practices were all too evident at the time and needed little explanation.
Within the Sutra are the essential eight-steps or limbs of yoga (astanga yoga). They outline a classical route taken by many students, from daily life practices to superconscious spiritual awakening. These steps have become central to various systems of yoga, and are looked upon as important stages that follow on from one another, beginning with the most practical and leading on to knowledge of one’s pure, free and wise nature. They are not found in the philosopher Shankara’s Advaita Vedanta system however, which can be seen as more of a top-down approach, which focuses more on the atman-Brahman relationship than on evolving stages that start with ethical behaviour. Modern integralism, on the other hand, might consider starting where one is strongest and expanding from that point to include the whole of one’s being. Swami Nikhilananda also wrote about this being the approach of the Bhagavad Gita in his translation of the work.
The eight-steps themselves are looked upon as a process of mental and emotional purification, and includes practices found in other wisdom traditions, such as self-awareness, purifying the heart and bringing about positive changes in one’s life and outlook.
Steps for Spiritual Unfoldment: the Eightfold Path of Yoga
1. Ethical conduct (yamas)
Under the heading of yamas, which literally means ‘restraints’, but might be better understood as observations, are five ethical rules:
(1) Non-violence in thought, word and deed.
(2) Truthfulness.
(3) Non-stealing.
(4) Chastity.
(5) Greedlessness and non-grasping.
The five observations above are seen as different areas for spiritual development and ways of avoiding negative behaviour. Number 4 can be translated to mean moderation in all activities. We should consider the fact that some yoga teachers belong to family lineages that can be traced back several generations. They would, therefore, not be expected to observe the practice of celibacy all the time, otherwise their lineages would die out. The Buddhist precept of abstaining from sexual misconduct might be a more practical interpretation, as sex is not dismissed as something unsacred in the Hindu tradition. Bede Griffiths reminded us about this in his writings on the symbolism of the Shiva-lingam, and pointed out how it is invariably looked upon as holy and linked with the Supreme Creative Source of all:
The sexual origin of the lingam is, of course, obvious, but this only brings out the extraordinary depth of understanding of ancient India. Sex was always regarded as something ‘holy’ – I think it still is, except where the Indian spirit has been corrupted by the West. The lingam was therefore a natural symbol of the sacred ‘source of life.’
At no point are we told to follow the eightfold-path of yoga blindly, but we are meant to reflect upon how we can apply it and how far we need to go with it. The practice of discernment and taking responsibility for one’s spiritual growth is highly valued in all the great wisdom traditions and needs be used by all students of spirituality when deciding what is helpful for their growth. We should not judge ourselves harshly if we feel we have not lived-up to some of the key principles of yoga, as we cannot achieve everything overnight and feelings of guilt are counterproductive to healthy development.
The eightfold path of yoga needs to be seen as a guide only for steering us on the right path. Like all spiritual teachings, we have to interpret them for ourselves, come to our own conclusions and decide how much is right for us. This is all part of the development process. There can be good reasons for acting less than we feel we should; often it is because we are suffering – mentally, physically or emotionally – or feel that our spiritual life is being overpowered by events beyond our control. The latter can be found underlying many of our feelings of discontentment.
A friend once told a Psychosynthesis group she was involved in how lucky she was, as she had lots of problems to work on in her development! It can be helpful to look at our life and growth with a similar understanding and realise that it is here that initial work is invariably done. We must ask ourselves whether there are any past issues affecting our current understanding and judgments about life and people. We also need to see whether our surroundings, work, friends and relationships are creative forces in our lives – consciously or unconsciously. If not, what can we do to make them more wholesome and supportive?
A good way of starting the five yamas/observations is to sit quietly for a while then write down one of them and think about what it means. See what thoughts or feelings arise. Think about how you can apply it and how you can overcome any barriers which are causing problems in your spiritual journey – it may be about letting go, working on past issues or towards a goal, or transforming something in the present. Ask yourself if you need to practise the yama all the time and whether there are times when it is not possible to apply it and why.
If you write down your thoughts, feelings and insights in a diary, it will help to make them more concrete, instead of being just passing impressions. It will also give you something to later reflect upon and see how you are progressing. Swamiji once pointed out that we do not have to think about applying all the yamas, but take just one of them and live by it. An example she gave for this was the practice of non-violence (ahimsa), which can be seen as the main principle of many great teachers, such as Jesus, Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr. and as being the most important yama.
2. Inner virtues and mastery (niyamas)
Whereas the yamas focus on ethical conduct, the niyamas are concerned with inner virtues and mastery and are intended to regulate one’s relationship with the spiritual life. The five niyamas are:
(1) Inner purity, which includes the purifying of one’s mind and loosening material attachments.
(2) Contentment (a state of equanimity, calmness and composure), which comes about through the practice of inner purity.
(3) Austerity, implying practices such as fasting, observing silence or stillness, in which the student removes impurities and establishes a greater power over his or her senses, but does not imply extreme asceticism.
(4) Self-study, which has a double meaning of contemplating scripture and various sciences, as well as of mindful introspection, self-acceptance and understanding.
(5) Devotion to the Lord (ishvara), which is defined in the Yoga Bhasya (an influential commentary on the Sutra) as the offering up of all actions to the Supreme Teacher, which is comparable to the joint practice of devotion and karma yoga found in the Bhagavad Gita. One of the most famous practices of devotion is the recitation of Om: seen as a creative and an ever-present manifestation of the Divine in the universe.
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3. Posture (asana)
The first two steps regulate our contact with everyday life and are intended to reduce unskilful acts which bind us to conditioned worldly existence (samsara: the world of change and unsatisfactoriness, which is linked also with rebirth). The overall aim is to eradicate all karma and inhibiting impressions. But to take the process a step further, we have to find the right place where we will not be interrupted and able to still our bodies by using a particular meditation posture, which will aid single-pointed concentration.
Obviously it is not possible for us all to rush off to the Himalayas and meditate in a nice quiet cave and this is not what Patanjali suggests doing. Nonetheless, we can either find a peaceful location, spiritual place or centre, or put aside a quiet area or room in our homes that we can use solely for the purpose of meditation practice.
Having the right environment and posture will help to bring about physical, mental and emotional stability and aids meditation exercises. The Yoga Sutra states that the posture should be steady and comfortable. If the posture is incorrect, it can cause distractions, such as trembling of the body, pain or erratic breathing, and should be corrected. To illustrate how a regular place of spiritual practice can build energy and a more conducive environment for meditation, I should mention a small and ancient Shiva temple that Glyn Edwards and I once visited, which some Indian friends said we should experience first-hand.
It took us several hours to travel to it from Mumbai, along a dusty and winding road, congested with colourfully painted lorries. The temple had been used as a place of worship for hundreds of years and is believed to be one of the oldest in India. It had been built in a sacred area, next to a holy mountain. Inside, the low ceiling and walls were blackened with age. Various bulky, square-cut columns and a tiny shrine area that stepped-down from the main hall, gave the impression of being inside a cave. Squatted in the only available space were several yogis absorbed in mantra practice. The minute we entered the temple structure we both experienced an overwhelming energy that seemed to come up from deep within the earth and vibrate throughout the whole building. Both of us had never experienced anything quite like it before.
Unfortunately – or fortunately, depending on how you look at it – it was a busy but special holy day. The temple’s attendants were frantically shuffling in pilgrims in one entrance, past the main shrine area, then out of a back exit. It meant there was no space or time allowed to just sit and be quiet. We could only image how deep one would have gone in such a place, especially with the aid of that kind of energy and atmosphere.
4. Control of the life-force (pranayama)
When the asana is practised correctly it supports the internalisation of our awareness. The next step is about energising through the practice of pranayama, which is performed to increase internalised awareness and bring about changes within us.
Pranayama is not only to do with the breath and practices involving its retention and expansion whilst holding different mudras and bandhas (hand and body positions/locks), but also bound-up with the all-pervading, rejuvenating energy and life-force of the cosmos. This energy is focused on and creatively used in yogic spirituality.
Patanjali’s Sutra first mentions making the respiratory system as slow and steady as possible – obviously without force. Mircea Eliade pointed out that the practice of concentrating on the rhythm of the breath could well go back to early ritual chanting. The benefits of using the breath for relaxation and meditation purposes are almost endless. When our breathing is calm, regulated and rhythmic our minds, bodies and emotions become more peaceful. “The first sign of an uncontrolled mind”, Swami Adiswarananda reminds us, “is irregularity of breathing”.
5. Withdrawing the mind from the world of emotional and sensory distractions (pratyahara)
For most people, sitting quietly will still mean being distracted by various random thoughts, feelings and physical sensations. For this reason, the next step is about disidentifying from any distractions.
The word pratyahara is used to describe this process and is invariably interpreted as ‘sensual-withdrawal’, which does not imply blocking sensory distractions. If we consider what happens when we become engrossed in a book or any absorbing activity, we see how our mind and senses may still register other things, but do not get distracted by them. Pratyahara is about taking a mental step-back. Even if our minds are drawn away from this practice, we can still return to it without any effort.
Through the withdrawal of our minds from any emotional or sensory distractions we start to cultivate deep inner awareness. This is seen to reduce attachments to external surroundings and as an important stage of yogic meditation. Some yoga teachers recommend doing preliminary visualisation practice, which can help in achieving pratyahara.
It is worth mentioning that the Christian Father, Swami Amaldas made observations about positive and negative approaches to the practice of pratyahara in his book Christian Yogic Meditation. The negative approach occurs when we see ourselves in disharmony with anything that distracts us, including our own senses. It’s a good point which can indeed lead to developing a negative view of distractions. His answer to this possible problem is to be aware of the outside world first and then bring it to the centre of one’s being, so that everything becomes a part of our practice:
the withdrawal in its deepest sense is not that I separate myself from other beings … After this kind of Prathyahara when I open my eyes, when I come out of meditation, I will be able to relate myself to others. The love and concern for others will flow spontaneously. I will still have the consciousness that everything around me is part of me.
– Swami Amaldas.
This practice has some similarities with the practice of antar mouna (described by Swamiji in chapter 5). Much as I love the thinking behind Swami Amaldas’s approach, I wonder how easy it is to achieve for anyone living in a violent and noisy neighbourhood. Prathyahara in its traditional form is something that can happen quite naturally when we have mastered the art of sitting quietly and focusing on our breath. This practice of going deep within oneself, taking some time out and recharging one’s batteries and disidentifying from the world of the senses is known for bringing about great benefits – spiritually, creatively, mentally and emotionally.
Perhaps the answer lies in our preconceptions and the overall aim of what we are trying to achieve in our meditation practices. For instance, if on the one hand we are aiming to escape from the world, then the preliminary practice of prathyahara might help us to do that. On the other hand, if we look upon practising it as a step towards helping us to become more balanced and in tune with life, then it may help us move towards that goal.
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6. Focusing the mind (dharana)
Following on from pratyahara is the holding of the mind in a motionless state, which is often described as ‘one-pointed awareness’. Dharana comes from the root word dhr meaning ‘to hold’. It means directing the mind towards a specific object and keeping it focused on that in order to develop what is described as meditative absorption.
The object of concentration can be a physical one. Or it can be on a thought, an internal area, such as the heart-centre or, with the aid of mantra, focused on God. The Yoga Sutra mentions various distractions and obstacles that can weaken our commitment to both focusing our mind and our spiritual practices, such as ill-health, tiredness, being too worldly and doubt. Though I must admit to having seen a healthy element of doubt leading people to question things more deeply in their lives and development, and to become more mature, inclusive and less narrow in their spiritual beliefs.
The Sutra, like other teachings of yoga, encourages us to be vigilant and persevere in order to overcome any distractions and recommends one-pointed awareness as the best method for keeping them at bay. Other practices mentioned for overcoming obstacles and aiding peaceful states of mind and concentration, are the cultivation of positive qualities, including taking joy in other people’s successes, equanimity and developing compassion and friendliness towards others. These are identical to Buddhism’s four sublime states. There is also mention of the Buddhist practice of cultivating opposite thoughts to any distractions or negative states of mind.
A simple and popular practice for focusing the mind on an object (though not mentioned in the Sutra) is to place a lighted candle approximately 3 feet away from you, where you can gaze gently upon it. Look softly at the flame for a few minutes and notice all you can about it, i.e. its colour, brightness and the aura glowing around it. Then close your eyes and see if you can hold the image of the flame within your mind’s eye (just above the middle of the eyebrows). After a few minutes, open your eyes and repeat the practice a few more times, then sit quietly for a while.
In the remaining steps of yoga’s eightfold path you will see how this practice naturally flows into them.
7. Meditative absorption (dhyana)
Meditative absorption (dhyana) is a deeper stage that comes after focusing the mind, where the object concentrated upon becomes more tangible and vivid and starts to fill one’s consciousness without distraction. It is seen to quieten and overcome various mental activities, states of mind and unconscious influences, such as a lack of knowledge of one’s authentic Self, strong attachments to pleasures and aversions to anything one finds unpleasant. These gradually diminish as the meditative state expands and becomes more stable. Deep superconscious awareness is realised when all inhibiting states and unconscious distractions are finally transcended.
Pratyahara, focusing the mind and meditative absorption are all steps in the same process of internalisation, which lead to the final stage of the eightfold path of yoga.
8. Superconscious knowledge of our true Selves (samadhi)
The Yoga Sutra distinguishes between two types of samadhi. The first covers all kinds of insights and serene states that can be experienced by focusing on an object for meditation purposes (samprajnata-samadhi: aided superconsciousness). This kind of practice requires prolonged and deep meditative absorption so that the object of meditation fills one’s entire consciousness, and brings about a fusion between the mind and the object concentrated on. Once accomplished, tranquil experiences of peace and calm arise naturally within ourselves.
The second type of samadhi is achieved without the aid of any objects (asamprajnata-samadhi: objectless superconsciousness). When achieved it is seen as a more complete stage towards realising our Ultimate Self.
It should perhaps be pointed out that samadhi is not an unconscious trance state; there is no loss of lucidity. Rather a sense of wakefulness and clarity is intensified. The experience of unbound freedom happens when ordinary consciousness is quietened and all opposites are transcended. It is the realisation of the higher Self, and liberation from the influence and bondage of unhealthy conditioning and our lower nature (apara-prakrti), of which the latter is intrinsically bound-up with the gunas. For the devotional practitioner, it is at this stage that the revelation of the Lord (ishvara), the Supreme Self, is revealed.
Liberation is about becoming consciously aware of and overcoming our false identifications with the ego-centred self and fully realising our authentic nature, which is ever-pure, wise and free. It does not imply that we get transported to another place or attain something that we did not have before. Swami Adiswarananda gives us a wonderful description about it in his superb book Meditation and Its Practices:
It is the Self-Realization – a burning realization that destroys all that is false and imaginary in us and reveals before us our true Self. Psychologically, it is rousing ourselves from self-centred inner polarization, division, and distraction to experience the reality of unified and harmonious existence.
The states of samadhi are often described as blissful and are stages towards the final work of transforming and transcending all limiting aspects of ourselves. This includes the higher levels of reasoning and intuition (buddhi) and even sattvic knowledge (influence of the purity guna); although all these are valid, worked on and used in the process towards yogic enlightenment. In yogic thought, even in its purest form, buddhi is still considered to be under the influence of the gunas and believed to play a part in the creation of the separate ego-self. As long as there is a distinction between seer and seen reality we will not discover a complete awakening to the sacred Oneness of all. For even in the highest insights and greatest leaps of intuition there can still be traces of this distinction.
Perhaps the way to look at this is to think of higher functions and aspects of buddhi and sattvic knowledge as qualities of, or reflecting, the authentic spiritual Self, but not as the Ultimate in Its purest sense. Therefore, they also have to be transcended. Most yogic texts make this point, including the Uddhava Gita:
With mind thus calmed, overcome even sattva
through continued dispassion towards the material world.
Thus the wise overcome all three gunas,
release themselves from the idea of ‘I’,
and fix their attention on the absolute Self.
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