Santoshan
Sufism, the principle mystical movement in Islam, rose out of an early trend in asceticism that was influenced by men and women who devoted themselves to God. It was a period in which teachings went hand in hand with practice, when holy individuals taught the essential doctrines of Sufism to their disciples. They constantly prayed, fasted, reflected upon the Divine and the Qur’an’s deepest meaning.
Surrender and submission to the Divine and its universal laws, as spoken in the Qur’an, became the foundation of the mystical teachings of the early Sufis; for God was seen to have revealed Himself in the words of the holy book, which was the means by which they could come to know Him.
The word 'Sufi’ did not come into use until around 850 ce in Iran and is believed to have come from the Arabic word suf, meaning ‘wool’, that related to a simple woollen garment early Sufis wore and was a sign of their initiation. It is quite possible that the Sufis were copying the dress of Christian ascetics they had come into contact with. Wool was something that only the lowest classes of society wore and, therefore, seen as an act of humility and poverty to wear it.
Ibn Sirin (d.728), a celebrated scholar, spoke against the practice, as he felt it was an imitation of Jesus. Muhammad on the other hand was said to have worn cotton. Some scholars believe that the word ‘Sufi’ may have its origins in the Greek word sophos, meaning ‘wise’, or that it may even be a deliberate pun on the two words suf and sophos combined.
There are some key beliefs and practices found in Sufism, such as the belief in ‘states’ and ‘stages’ of progression on the spiritual ‘Path’ and the idea of ‘passing away’. Although Sufis have put different interpretations on these, the Path usually consists of repentance and stages of internalised purification towards perfection. However, Sufi poets have generally rejected the idea of stages in favour of practicing the pure love of God.
The practice of poverty and abstinence is important, as this was something that was seen to be practiced by the prophets themselves – Moses, Jesus, Muhammad, etc. Sufism has no monastic tradition like Christianity and celibacy is not stipulated, though in the early period it was common. Piety was also of great importance.
There are two schools of Sufism: the drunken and the sober. The first focuses more on the love of God and ecstatic states of consciousness and the other on intellectual development in order to know God. A key influence in early Sufi practices is the idea of receiving inspiration beyond oneself. Another, though not always accepted, is receiving teachings from a master, who may or may not be physically present or alive and might pass on teachings telepathically.
Some Sufis have condemned listening to music and poetry, while others have recommended it. One practice has its origins in Greek traditions: that of gazing at beardless boys – justified by the explanation that one is contemplating Absolute Beauty in human form. This idea can also be found in Sufi poetry, where beauty in this world is seen as a metaphor for the Real Beauty of God.
Other influences can be seen in the constant repetition of the name of God with the Christian orthodox practice of the Jesus Prayer. The name is seen to be the same as God - important Sufi manuals contain many sayings of the Prophet encouraging constant prayer and recollection of God in every moment. The use of prayer beads seems to have been borrowed from Islamic contact with Buddhists – this may later have influenced Christianity through their contact with Islam. Sufi breathing techniques might also have been borrowed from either Buddhist or Hindu yogis.
Some Sufi text defies logic and is deliberately written in paradoxical statements, rather like Zen koans, in order to shock the listener into another state of consciousness. Some ideas seem to have been influence by neo-Platonism, as well as Gnosticism: a mystical movement that was in existence around the Middle East after the 1st century ce. Gnostics promoted ideas of higher knowledge and believed that in each person there was a spark of the Divine. Beliefs of this kind are speculated to have influenced the sober school.
Christian spirituality also appears to have had some influence, as well as the teachings of Jesus himself. The analogies in his Sermon on the Mount seem to have had some impact on the first generation of Sufis and he continued to be a favourite figure in late Sufi poetry. Isaac of Nineveh, a 7th century Christian mystic and writer in Iraq, enjoyed good relations with the early Muslims, and his writings on the humility of Jesus, trust in God and an older doctrine of blame can all be found in Sufi teachings.
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Early Influential Figures of the 9th Century
In the 9th century ce various trends, styles and teachings of mysticism emerged. Two figures worth mentioning are Muhasibi (d.857) and Dhu ’l-Nun (d.861). A number of Muhasibi teachings were adopted by the Sufis, though he did not promote the important Sufi teaching about the progression of ‘stations’ and was not a Sufi himself.
Dhu ’l-Nun lived in Egypt and was acquainted with Neo-Platonist ideas. He had a good command of the Arab language and composed various small poems. Later Sufis claimed him as a leader and originator of important concepts, such as the mystic’s direct knowledge/gnosis of God and the stations and states of the Sufi Path.
‘Thou art That.’
Another influential Sufi was Abu Yazid (d. around 875) who started the drunken school and came to inspire many writers and Sufi poets. A number of mystical utterances have been attributed to him. These seem to be of an ecstatic nature – giving voice to inner mystical experience. Much has been written about his sayings and comparisons with Hindu wisdom. One saying, “Thou art That”, is a direct quote from the Upanishads. But he is best remembered for declaring, “Glory be to Me, how great is My Glory!” Though puzzling to some Muslims, this statement is thought to be an expression of inner recognition and unity with God, where the lover and beloved are one.
Tustari (d.896) and Kharraz (d.899) are two early founders of Sufism. Sufis credit Kharraz with being the first to speak of passing away and survival. Kharraz’s ideas have much in common with Isaac of Nineveh, such as his theory about truthfulness, which is linked with the series of stations on the Path. Repentance is the first in this series, followed by knowledge of the lower self, leading through various other stages involving trust, love and renunciation, to a final stage of intimacy and direct knowledge of God. At this stage the aspirant is beyond worldly ties and no longer needs to worry about being truthful, etc., because he is kept from committing such things by God.
He taught about stages of repentance, abstinence and discipline of one’s lower nature, which lead to God in the highest stage where the lower soul disappears and the heart is granted equanimity – a teaching which links with the Sufi practice of passing away and survival. His idea about the ‘Seal of the Saints’ is still influential. It consists of degrees of sainthood which relate to levels of illumination and knowledge of God.
Junayed of Baghdad (d.910) is considered to be one of the great early Sufis and was the head of the sober school. He believed the ecstatic utterances of the drunken school were early signs of development and thought sobriety should follow after ecstasy. For him mysticism did not entitle a Muslim to break Islamic law; it was about renunciation, poverty, constant purification, constant striving and mental effort in order to return to one’s origins (God).
His ideas about passing away involved an escape from temporal existence in this world to more real existence and survival in God. This theme of dying to the world is prominent in both Islamic and Christian mysticism. Julian Baldick points out in his book Mystical Islam, that the notion of passing away and survival can be found in the works of Meister Eckhart, Angelus Silesius and in the sayings of Muhammad (who is credited with saying “die before you die!”).
The execution of Hallaj in Baghdad in 922 ce is an important era of Islamic history. He studied with Junayd in Iraq, but broke away after a quarrel and became a popular figure in Iran. He was a mystic who followed the path of love of God. He stopped wearing the woollen garment of the Sufis and began to preach in public, as well as travel to places such as India and Central Asia.
He was accused of performing either magic or miracles, and was arrested and thrown in prison. Some accused him of blasphemy and others of being a secret Christian. Others accused him of believing that both human and divine nature can be united. He also held a belief about incarnation which was not acceptable, because it implied having two essences that united into one. The philosophical thinking against it was that if you were already God in essence, then you could not ‘become’ what you already were.
But the main reason for his execution was his teaching that the pilgrimage to Mecca could be done in one’s own home as an individual ritual. The miracles it seems from reports were genuine, but at the same time considered hypnotic illusions. They ranged from apporting fruit to making his body fill an entire room. Similar to Jesus, a popular saying of his was, “I am the Truth, I am the Real”, which has become a famous saying in Islam – God is often called the “Real’ in Sufism.
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10th and 11th Century
In the 10th century Sufism become more established and accepted as a mystical tradition in Islam. Around this time classic manuals and principle doctrines of Sufism were formulated. By the 11th century several different sects of Sufism had emerged.
There was a secret society in Southern Iran who also had some influence on Islamic mysticism, called the Brethren of Purity. They incorporated various themes of the Greeks and Christians and mixed them with Iranian and Indian lore.
An important Sufi figure around this period was Niffari (d. around 977), who was known for his Book of Stayings, a system of three levels: theoretical book knowledge, direct mystical knowledge and a level of staying before God and having knowledge of Him. But these teachings were not popular in non-mystical circles of Islam.
Two non-Sufis who had a tremendous influence are Avicenna (d.1035), a popular Muslim philosopher, and Birumi (d.1050). Avicenna had notions about a higher philosophy that seemed to have origins in neo-Platonism, while Birmuni drew upon Greek, Christian and Indian ideas. They both came out of a highly tolerant renaissance period in the 10th century.
Muhammad Ghazali (d.1111) has become a popular figure in the West and is often considered an important figure. Sufis, however, do not pay him much attention. It is his brother Ahmad (d.1126) who was more influential. He was a member of the drunken school and wrote much on love and in Persian – an important development in Iran. He not only had a huge influence on the subject of love in Persian literature, but became an important teacher who was linked with the Sufi brotherhoods and lineages. These Brotherhoods helped to organise Sufism.
12th Century
With the 12th century came the foundation of the great Sufi Orders. The time had come for them to be linked-up in wide brotherhoods of mystics acknowledging a common master and using shared disciplines and rituals. Coming out of the 12th century was Ibn Arabi (1165-1240), the Great Spanish philosopher and mystic who became Sufism’s principle organiser of teachings and wisdom.
Thoughts for Consideration
‘Mysticism is a subject that can often causes controversy, because it often takes the individual beyond the accepted boundaries of his or her faith.’
Mysticism is a subject that can often causes controversy, because it often takes the individual beyond the accepted boundaries of his or her faith. Consequently mystics can find themselves in conflict with mainline believers. The problem is that mysticism is an individual process based around personal experience, and will manifest through an individual’s consciousness and invariably be coloured by it to a certain or lesser degree.
This can be seen in the different expressions, variation of ideas and themes that have come out of Sufism. The two schools – drunken and sober – represent two avenues that a mystic might take, depending on his or her individual character and psychological nature. Yet harmony in many ways is best achieved when the heart and mind – love and knowledge – are balanced and working together.
References
Arthur J. Arberry, Sufism: An Account of the Mystics of Islam
Unwin Paperbacks, London, 1979
Julian Baldick, Mystical Islam: An Introduction to Sufism
I. B. Tauris, London, 1992 reprint
Annemarie Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions of Islam
The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1978 (3rd edition)
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